Furthermore, shoulder injuries could be sex specific. The high specialization in indoor volleyball regarding the different playing positions could lead to the repeated use of harmful movements like arm swing techniques due to specific movement conditions e.g., for fast ball players. Athletes with chronic shoulder pain present symptoms of impingement as a result from different shoulder conditions like rotator cuff tendinopathy, shoulder instability, scapular dyskinesis, biceps pathology, SLAP (superior labrum anterior-superior) lesions, and GIRD (glenohumeral internal rotation deficit) (Cools and Reeser, 2017). This is of great importance since shoulder injuries in indoor volleyball, like other overhead sports, are very common (16-19% of all overuse injuries, Seminati and Minetti, 2013) due to the high amount of more than 40000 attacks/year (Kugler et al., 1996). Based on their experimental findings of unfavorable range of motion and trajectories of the humerus in traditional techniques, they hypothesized that alternative techniques might be less harmful for the shoulder joint. ( 2015) analyzed the kinematics of different arm swing techniques. Already in 1986 Selinger and Ackerman-Blount described five different types of arm swing techniques during the spike attack, however, until recently, little scientific attention has been given to these techniques. While there is little inter-individual variety in the acceleration and follow through phases (Coleman et al., 1993 Oka et al., 1976 Selinger and Ackermann-Blount, 1986), there are different techniques applied during the wind-up and cocking phase (Seminati et al., 2015). Following the take-off, the spike technique is subdivided into the wind-up, the cocking phase, the acceleration phase, and the follow through phase. Therefore, much emphasis is put on the development of the overarm movement. One of the most important technical parts of the game is the spike attack, which was identified as a major performance indicator (Drikos and Vagenas, 2011). The development of the game has led to anthropometric differences between attacking players (middle blockers, outside hitters, and opposites) compared to non-attacking players (setters and liberos) in females and males (Gualdi-Russo and Zaccagni, 2001 Palao et al., 2014). Such changes have affected the game tactics and player’s specialization, e.g., depending on the playing position. Indoor volleyball was introduced in the Olympic Games in 1964 and has experienced several significant rule changes like the change of the scoring system from the side-out system to the rally-system and the introduction of the libero, a specialized player for defense who is not allowed to attack. Based on these results we suggest to critically revise arm swing technique training especially for young players and players with shoulder problems. Reasons for that could be the implicit knowledge of players (and coaches) regarding increased performance (ball speed) and injury prevention. Although most volleyball textbooks only describe the Bow-and-arrow techniques, most of the world class indoor volleyball players used Circular and Snap arm swing techniques. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in arm swing techniques between sexes, playing positions, and scoring system but significant differences (p < 0.001) to beach volleyball. Bow-and-arrow high and Straight techniques were significantly less used than other techniques in both sexes. Five different arm swing techniques in the cocking phase (Straight, Bow-and-arrow high, Bow-and-arrow low, Snap, Circular) were classified by two experts. Eighty-two male (M) and 85 female (F) players were assessed from video recordings from ten competitions. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the spike attack arm swing techniques of Olympic volleyball winners and finalists (1984-2021) and to investigate possible differences between sex, playing position, scoring system, and compared to beach volleyball. While a variety of arm swing techniques was already shown in world class beach volleyball players, it is unclear if this is also true for world class indoor volleyball. Different spike attack arm swing techniques have developed which might affect performance and risk of injury. In the last decades, indoor volleyball has experienced significant rule changes and a high player specialization in both sexes.
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